Organised crime continues to be a pervasive and evolving threat, presenting serious security challenges globally. These challenges stem from the increasing reach, sophistication, and operational diversity of criminal networks enabled by globalisation and rapid technological advancements. Transnational organised crime structures, gangs, terrorist groups, and poly-criminal networks have been extensively studied, with works like Sergi (2017) and Hobbs (1998) highlighting their interconnectivity and multifaceted characteristics.

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